Section-1: Introduction

Climate change is one of the most pressing issues facing our planet today. It is a complex issue with far-reaching consequences that affect all aspects of our lives.

Climate change refers to the long-term shifts in temperature and typical weather patterns, mainly caused by human activities, especially the burning of fossil fuels. These shifts have a variety of effects on humans and the planet. Climate change is caused by the accumulation of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere. These gases trap heat from the sun, causing the planet to warm. The main GHGs are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and fluorinated gases. Human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and agriculture, have increased the concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere. This has led to a rapid rise in global temperatures, which is causing a variety of changes in the climate system.

1. Causes of Climate Change
The main cause of climate change is human activity, primarily the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas. These activities release green house gases, such as carbon dioxide, into the atmosphere. These gases trap heat from the sun, causing the Earth’s temperature to rise.
Green house gases: Greenhouse gases are the gases in the atmosphere that raise the surface temperature of planets such as the Earth. What distinguishes them from other gases is that they absorb the wavelengths of radiation that a planet emits, resulting in the greenhouse effect. The Earth is warmed by sunlight, causing its surface to radiate heat, which is then mostly absorbed by water vapor (H₂O), carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), and ozone (O₃). Without greenhouse gases, the average temperature of Earth's surface would be about −18 °C (0 °F), rather than the present average of 15 °C (59 °F) [Reference]. (for Celsius to Fahrenheit conversion see the [link])
Green house effect: The greenhouse effect occurs when greenhouse gases in a planet's atmosphere trap some of the heat radiated from the planet's surface, raising its temperature. This process happens because stars emit shortwave radiation that passes through greenhouse gases, but planets emit longwave radiation that is partly absorbed by greenhouse gases. That difference reduces the rate at which a planet can cool off in response to being warmed by its host star. Adding to greenhouse gases further reduces the rate a planet emits radiation to space, raising its average surface temperature [Reference].









2. Impacts of Climate Change
Climate change is already having a significant impact on our planet. The Earth’s average temperature has risen by about 1 degree Celsius since the pre-industrial period. This may not seem like much, but it is enough to cause a range of changes, including:
• Rising sea levels: As the Earth’s temperature rises, more water evaporates from the oceans. This water then returns to the Earth in the form of rain or snow, but some of it remains in the atmosphere as vapor. This causes the oceans to expand, and sea levels to rise.
• Extreme weather events: Climate change is causing more extreme weather events, such as heat waves, droughts, floods, and wildfires. These events are having a devastating impact on communities around the world.
• Loss of biodiversity: Climate change is also hurting biodiversity. The Earth’s ecosystems are being disrupted, and many species are being lost.
3. Mitigation and Adaptation
There are two main approaches to addressing climate change:
• Mitigation: Mitigation involves reducing greenhouse gas emissions and preventing further warming. This can be done by switching to renewable energy sources, improving energy efficiency, and planting trees.
• Adaptation: Adaptation involves preparing for the impacts of climate change that are already happening. This can include building seawalls to protect coastal communities from rising sea levels and developing drought-resistant crops.
4. International Cooperation
Addressing climate change requires international cooperation. The Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015, is an international treaty that aims to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius, preferably to 1.5 degrees Celsius, compared to pre-industrial levels. The agreement also aims to strengthen the ability of countries to deal with the impacts of climate change.
5. Individual Actions
While international cooperation is essential, individual actions can also make a difference. There are many things that we can do as individuals to reduce our carbon footprint and help to address climate change. These include:
• Driving less and walking, biking, or taking public transportation more often.
• Using less energy at home by using energy-efficient appliances, turning off lights when not in use, and taking shorter showers.
• Eating less meat and more plant-based foods.
• Reducing, reusing, and recycling.

How to address the climate change

1. Renewable Energy Transition: Transitioning to renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, and geothermal power, is crucial to reduce our reliance on fossil fuels, the primary contributors to greenhouse gas emissions. Governments and industries are investing heavily in renewable energy technologies to increase their share in the global energy mix.

   

2. Energy Efficiency and Conservation: Improving energy efficiency in buildings, transportation, and industrial processes can significantly reduce energy consumption and associated emissions. This involves adopting energy-efficient appliances, optimizing building designs, and promoting sustainable transportation options.

   

3. Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): CCS technology captures carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions from industrial processes and stores them underground, preventing them from entering the atmosphere. While CCS is not a standalone solution, it can complement other mitigation strategies to further reduce emissions.
   The key components of CCS technology include:

   1. Capture:
      • Post-Combustion Capture: Involves removing CO₂ from the flue gas after the fossil fuel has been burned. This is often done using solvents or other chemical processes.
      • Pre-COmbustion Capture: Occurs before the fossil fuel is burned, and it involves converting the fuel into a gas that allows for easier separation of CO₂.
   2. Transport: Once captured, the CO₂ is compressed into a dense form for efficient transportation. Pipelines are commonly used to transport CO₂ from capture facilities to storage sites.
   3. Storage:
      • Geological Storage: The most common method involves injecting the captured CO₂ into deep geological formations, such as depleted oil and gas fields or deep saline aquifers. The CO₂ is stored securely underground, reducing the risk of leakage.
      • Ocean Storage: Involves injecting CO₂ into deep ocean waters, but this method raises environmental concerns and is not widely implemented due to potential ecological impacts.

   The goal of CCS is to significantly reduce CO₂ emissions from large-scale point sources, such as power plants and industrial facilities, which are challenging to address through other means like renewable energy adoption or energy efficiency improvements. CCS is often seen as a transitional technology to help achieve climate goals while continuing to use fossil fuels during the transition to a more sustainable energy mix.

   It's important to note that while CCS has the potential to play a role in reducing emissions, it is not a standalone solution. It should be complemented by efforts to increase energy efficiency, transition to renewable energy sources, and implement other sustainable practices to achieve comprehensive climate goals.

   
   
4. Forest Conservation and Enhancement: Forests play a vital role in absorbing CO₂ from the atmosphere and storing it in their biomass. Protecting existing forests and promoting reforestation efforts can significantly enhance the natural carbon sink and contribute to mitigating climate change.
   
   

   Forests play a crucial role in absorbing carbon dioxide (CO₂) through a process known as photosynthesis. This natural mechanism is vital for mitigating climate change, as it helps remove CO₂ from the atmosphere and store it in the form of carbon in trees and soil. Here's how forests contribute to absorbing CO₂ and reducing the impact of climate change:

   1. Photosynthesis:
      • Carbon Uptake: Trees, along with other plants, absorb CO₂ from the atmosphere during photosynthesis. In this process, they use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to produce oxygen and glucose (a form of sugar).
      • Carbon Storage: The carbon from CO₂ is stored in the form of biomass, including leaves, stems, branches, and roots. As trees grow, they continue to accumulate carbon in their structures.
   2. Carbon Sequestration:
      • Above-Ground Biomass: The carbon stored in the above-ground parts of trees helps sequester carbon, preventing it from being released back into the atmosphere.
      • Below-Ground Biomass: Tree roots and soil also store significant amounts of carbon, contributing to carbon sequestration. This carbon remains stored for years or even centuries.
   3. Forest Ecosystems:
      • Biodiversity: Forests support diverse ecosystems with a variety of plant and animal species. This biodiversity enhances the overall health and resilience of the ecosystem.
      • Symbiotic Relationships: Some tree species form symbiotic relationships with fungi (mycorrhizal associations), which can increase nutrient uptake and carbon storage in soils.
   4. Carbon Sink:
      • Net Carbon Sink: A healthy, growing forest acts as a net carbon sink, meaning it absorbs more carbon through photosynthesis than it releases through processes like respiration and decay.
   5. Climate Regulation:
      • Local Climate: Forests influence local climates by providing shade, releasing water vapor through transpiration, and affecting wind patterns. These factors contribute to a more stable and favorable climate.

   The conservation and sustainable management of forests are essential for maximizing their carbon sequestration potential. Deforestation and forest degradation release stored carbon back into the atmosphere, contributing to increased CO2 levels and climate change. Therefore, efforts to prevent deforestation, promote afforestation (planting trees in areas that were not previously forested), and implement sustainable forestry practices are critical components of global climate change mitigation strategies.



5. Sustainable Land Use Practices: Sustainable land use practices, such as minimizing deforestation, adopting regenerative agriculture, and conserving natural habitats, can help conserve carbon and promote biodiversity, further enhancing climate resilience.
6. International Cooperation and Agreements: International cooperation is essential to address climate change on a global scale. The Paris Agreement, a landmark international pact, outlines a global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to climate change (for more details on the international cooperation, see the sectio below sec-6 ).
7. Public Awareness and Behavioral Change: In addition to policy and technological interventions, fostering public awareness and encouraging behavioral changes are crucial to mitigating climate change. This includes promoting sustainable lifestyles, reducing consumption, and supporting climate-friendly policies.

Monitoring Climate Change

1. Satellite Technology:
   • Utilizes satellite-based instruments for remote sensing.
   • Provides real-time, global-scale data on various climate parameters.
   • Enables monitoring of temperature, sea levels, atmospheric composition, and land cover changes.
2. Ground-Based Observations:
   • Involves a network of weather stations, buoys, and sensors deployed across the globe.
   • Collects localized data on temperature, precipitation, wind patterns, and other meteorological variables.
   • Ground-based observations offer high-resolution insights and validate satellite data
3. Climate Models:
   • Advanced computational models simulate complex interactions within the Earth's climate system.
   • Integrates historical data, satellite observations, and ground-based measurements.
   • Facilitates the projection of future climate scenarios for informed decision-making.

Key Indicators and Parameters Tracked:

• Monitoring global surface temperatures: Monitoring global surface temperatures to identify trends and anomalies. Assessing temperature variations in oceans and atmosphere.
• Sea Level Changes: Tracking sea level rise through satellite altimetry and tide gauges.
• Greenhouse Gas Concentrations
• Glacial Retreat and Ice Cover: Observing changes in glacial mass and ice cover through satellite imagery.
• Oceanic Conditions: (Monitoring ocean temperatures, currents, and acidity levels.)
• Extreme Weather Events

Climate-Modeling Satellites

Types of Climate-Modeling Satellites

• Earth Observation Satellites: These satellites collect data on various aspects of Earth's climate, including temperature, atmospheric composition, land cover, and ocean color. Examples include Landsat, Sentinel-2, and MODIS.
• Meteorological Satellites: These satellites monitor weather patterns, including clouds, precipitation, and storms. Examples include GOES, Meteosat, and MTSAT.
• Altimeter Satellites: These satellites measure sea level height, enabling researchers to track changes in the ocean's volume and circulation. Examples include AltiKa, Jason-3, and Aquarius.

How Satellites Inform Climate Models:

• Satellite data serves as "reality checks" for climate models: By comparing model simulations to satellite observations, scientists can identify and correct biases in the models.
• Satellite data provides key inputs for climate models: Satellite measurements of temperature, precipitation, and other climate variables are used to initialize and update climate models.
• Satellite data helps to constrain future climate projections: By incorporating satellite observations, climate models can provide more accurate and reliable predictions of climate change.

Examples of Satellite-Based Climate Research:

• The detection of global warming: Satellite data has provided clear evidence of the long-term trend of rising global temperatures⁷, ⁸ .
• The identification of ocean warming and acidification: Satellite measurements have revealed significant changes in ocean temperature and pH, which have far-reaching impacts on marine ecosystems⁹, ¹⁰.
• The tracking of sea level rise: Satellite altimetry has provided the most precise measurements of sea level change, which is a major threat to coastal communities worldwide¹¹, ¹².
• The monitoring of droughts and floods: Satellite imagery and data have enabled scientists to better understand and predict these extreme climate events¹³, ¹⁴.

Environmental Data

1. Importance of Quality Data in Climate Research:
   • Accurate and reliable data are the foundation of effective climate research.
   • Precision in measurements ensures the credibility of findings and predictions.
   • High-quality data enable policymakers to make informed decisions regarding climate change mitigation and adaptation.
2. Data Sources: Understanding and addressing climate change demands a comprehensive understanding of the Earth's climate system and its response to various factors, including human activities. This requires a vast amount of data collected from various sources.
   • Governmental Sources:
     • Utilization of data from meteorological agencies, environmental ministries, and related government bodies.
     • National and regional climate monitoring networks contribute valuable information.
   • Scientific Initiatives:
     • Collaboration with scientific institutions and research centers enhances access to specialized climate datasets.
     • Academic research plays a crucial role in advancing our understanding of climate patterns
   • Collaborative Initiatives:
     • Inclusion of data from international collaborations such as IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) and WMO (World Meteorological Organization).
     • Shared databases and open data initiatives promote global cooperation in addressing climate challenges.
   Here's a breakdown of the key data sources for climate change research:

   1. Meteorological Agencies:

      Continent	Agency
      North America	National Weather Service (NWS) in United States, Meteorological Service of Canada (MSC), Canadian Meteorological Centre (CMC), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
      South America	National Institute of Meteorology (INMET), National Weather Service (NWS) in Brazil, Brazilian National Institute of Meteorology (INMET)
      Europe	European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), Russian Hydrometeorological Centre (RHMC), Deutscher Wetterdienst (DWD)
      Asia	Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), China Meteorological Administration (CMA), India Meteorological Department (IMD), Meteorological Data Service of Korea (MKDS)
      Africa	African Centre of Meteorological Applications for Development (ACMAD), Egyptian Meteorological Authority (EMA), South African Weather Service (SAWS), Nigerian Meteorological Agency (NIMET)
      Australia	Australian Bureau of Meteorology (BOM), Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) in Papua New Guinea, Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) in Solomon Islands
      Oceania	New Zealand Meteorological Service (MetService), Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) in New Caledonia, French Polynesia Meteorological Service (RSMC FP)
      Antarctica	World Meteorological Organization (WMO), Australian Antarctic Division (AAD), British Antarctic Survey (BAS)

   2. Environmental Ministries:

      Ministires	Work
      Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), United States and Environment and Climate Change Canada, Canada (ECCC)	play a significant role in collecting and analyzing data related to environmental changes. They monitor various parameters such as greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation rates, air and water quality, and changes in biodiversity. This data provides insights into the human footprint on the environment and its impact on climate change.
      Ministry of Environment and Energy of Denmark (Miljø- og Fødevareministeriet)	Responsible for environmental protection, sustainable development, and food safety
      Ministry of the Environment, Energy and Infrastructure of France (Ministère de la Transition écologique, de la Cohésion des territoires et des Relations avec les collectivités territoriales)	Oversight of environmental protection, climate change mitigation and adaptation, and energy transition
      Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety of Germany (Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz, Bau und Reaktorsicherheit, Deutschland)	Responsible for environmental protection, nature conservation, building, and nuclear safety

   3. Government Bodies: Government agencies responsible for agriculture, forestry, transportation, and other sectors also contribute valuable data to climate change research. For instance, agricultural agencies collect data on crop yields and livestock production, which can help understand the impact of climate change on food security. Forestry agencies monitor forest cover and health, providing information on carbon sequestration and ecosystem services. Transportation agencies collect data on vehicle emissions and fuel consumption, which contributes to understanding greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation sector.
3. Challenges in Collecting and Managing Diverse Datasets:
   • Data Heterogeneity:
     • Integration of data from various sources with different formats and standards poses challenges.
     • Harmonization efforts are essential to ensure consistency and comparability.
     
     
     How to tackle the issue:

     • Standardization: Establishing consistent data formats and standards across different sources is crucial for seamless integration and analysis.
     • Data Profiling: Thoroughly profiling and documenting the characteristics of each data source helps identify and address data discrepancies.
     • Data Harmonization Tools: Utilizing data harmonization tools can automate the process of transforming and aligning data from disparate sources.
     • Metadata Management: Implementing comprehensive metadata management systems ensures that data descriptions are accurate and readily accessible.

     [Check the reference below ¹⁵, ¹⁶, ¹⁷, ¹⁸]
   
   
   • Spatial and Temporal Resolution:
     • Climate data often vary in spatial and temporal resolutions.
     • Balancing granularity while maintaining a comprehensive view is a persistent challenge.
   • Data Volume and Complexity:
     • The sheer volume and complexity of environmental data require robust infrastructure for storage and processing.
     • Advanced data management tools and technologies are crucial for handling large datasets.
   • Data Quality Assurance:
     • Ensuring the accuracy and reliability of data require thorough quality control measures.
     • Continuous monitoring and validation processes are essential to identify and rectify errors.
   • Ethical and Legal Considerations:
     • Addressing privacy concerns and ensuring ethical use of data.
     • Compliance with international and national regulations regarding data sharing and access.

International Cooperation and Agreements

1. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

   Adopted in 1992, the UNFCCC is the primary international treaty addressing climate change. It establishes a framework for countries to cooperate in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and the adaptation to the effects of climate change. The UNFCCC has been ratified by 197 parties, representing virtually every country in the world.

2. Kyoto Protocol

   The Kyoto Protocol, adopted in 1997 and entered into force in 2005, is an international agreement that set legally binding emission reduction targets for industrialized countries. The protocol aimed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by an average of 5% below 1990 levels over the period 2008-2012. However, the United States, the world's largest emitter at the time, never ratified the Kyoto Protocol, and some other major emitters also did not meet their targets.

3. Paris Agreement

   The Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015, is a landmark international agreement that aims to strengthen the global response to the threat of climate change. It establishes a framework for countries to voluntarily set ambitious national targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and to accelerate their efforts to adapt to the effects of climate change. The Paris Agreement has been ratified by 196 parties, representing over 195 countries.

4. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

   The IPCC is an intergovernmental body established by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to provide the world with the most up-to-date scientific assessment of climate change. The IPCC assesses the physical science basis of climate change, its impacts, and the options for mitigation and adaptation. The IPCC's reports are considered authoritative sources of information on climate change and have informed many international agreements and policies.

5. Green Climate Fund

   The Green Climate Fund (GCF) is a financial mechanism established to support developing countries in their efforts to mitigate and adapt to climate change. The GCF provides grants and concessional financing to developing countries to invest in clean energy, protect forests, and build resilience to climate change impacts. The GCF has received pledges of over $100 billion from developed countries, and it is expected to play a crucial role in supporting the implementation of the Paris Agreement.

Working Group on Climate

• Working Group I of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC): The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the leading international body for the assessment of climate change. It is a scientific body composed of hundreds of experts from all over the world. The IPCC Working Group I (WGI) assesses the physical science basis of climate change. This includes understanding the Earth's climate system, how it is changing, and the potential impacts of climate change.
• Working Group on Energy and Climate Change of the Economic Policy Committee (EPC): The Economic Policy Committee (EPC) is an independent advisory body to the European Commission. The Working Group on Energy and Climate Change (WGEEC) of the EPC is responsible for assisting and preparing the EPC's work on the economic and financial aspects of climate and energy policy, international climate policy, and the EU Energy Union.

References

1. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
2. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
3. Climate Action Tracker
4. The Climate Reality Project
5. 350.org
6. Spectroscopy and Remote Sensing (book), OP-TEC
7. Satellite Data Confirms Global Warming, Says NASA." NASA. April 11, 2018.
8. Satellites Reveal How Much Earth's Temperature Has Risen., Science Daily. April 11, 2018
9. Ocean Acidification Monitoring Needed to Assess Impacts on Marine Life." NOAA. June 22, 2017
10. Satellite Data Reveals Ocean Acidification's Reach and Impacts." Science Daily. June 22, 2017
11. Satellite Altimetry Measures Sea Level Rise with Unprecedented Accuracy." NASA. March 15, 2017
12. Satellite Data Provides Definitive Proof of Sea Level Rise. NOAA. March 15, 2017.
13. Satellite Data Helps Scientists Track and Predict Droughts and Floods." NASA. October 20, 2016
14. Satellites Help Scientists Pinpoint and Analyze Floods and Droughts." NOAA. October 20, 2016
15. "Data Harmonization for Climate Change Impact Assessment" by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2012): This report outlines the principles and methods for harmonizing climate change impact assessment datasets. It emphasizes the importance of data standardization for ensuring comparability and consistency across different studies.
16. "The Role of Data Harmonization in Climate Change Research and Policy" by the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) (2017): This article discusses the role of data harmonization in climate change research and policy development. It highlights the challenges and opportunities associated with harmonizing large and diverse datasets from various sources.
17. "Data Standardization in Earth Observation for Climate Change Research" by the European Commission's Joint Research Centre (JRC) (2022): This report provides an overview of data standardization initiatives in Earth observation for climate change research. It identifies the key challenges and opportunities in adopting and implementing standardized data formats and protocols.
18. "Data Standardization for Climate Science" by the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP) (2017): This report outlines the principles and guidelines for data standardization in climate science. It emphasizes the importance of data standardization for ensuring reliability, interoperability, and accessibility of climate data.